Alfred A. Barrios, PhD

Copyright © Alfred Barrios.  Reproduced by kind permission of the author.

[The original version of the article is available from Dr. Barrios’ Self-Programmed Control Center (SPCC) website and from The Great Debate website.  See also the NCH article on Dr. Barrios' theory of hypnosis and this article on Pavlov and hypnosis.]

The question of whether man does or does not have free will has been debated down through the centuries by some of the greatest minds but has never been fully answered. There are those, call them idealists, who say that of course we have free will; we can control our own destiny; we can choose between misery and happiness. Then there are the realists who point to all the miserable people in the world and ask did all these people freely choose to be miserable?

Do we really have free will? Do we really have control over our own destiny? Can we change our behaviors at will if we see that they are detrimental to us? Or is everything set in stone, pre-determined? In order to finally answer this question, we must first properly define our terms. Although there are currently many definitions of free will, I believe the most correct one is: Free will is the ability to control our automatic side, our subconscious behavior, by means of the power of sufficiently concentrated thought. And by concentrated thought I mean the ability to block the interference from any negative automatic behavior or thought that would tend to contradict the action or change we wish to empower.

If you stop to think about it, most people’s behavior is of an automatic nature: habits, attitudes and beliefs that have been so deeply programmed in over the years as to be so automatic that they are very hard to change. In this sense then you could say that many people are automatons, governed and slaves to this automatic (subconscious) behavior. [The "subconscious" is to be differentiated from the "unconscious" here. I define the subconscious as behavior that has been so deeply programmed as to occur automatically, below conscious awareness and often beyond conscious control. The unconscious can be defined as engrams or memories beyond immediate conscious recall.]

So from this definition of free will we can see that the answer to the question of whether there is free will or not is that all humans have the POTENTIAL for free will because all humans have the potential to enter this state of concentrated thought and thus have the potential to re-program themselves at will (an ability that differentiates humans from the rest of the animal kingdom). But not everyone has learned how to do this. Consequently, people differ from one another in the amount of free will they have.

However, there is a way of achieving this state of sufficiently concentrated thought and that is by developing a heightened state of belief in the outcome or change you are trying to program in; for I define belief as concentration on a thought to the exclusion of anything that would contradict that thought. Or another way of putting it: a state of heightened belief includes a strong inhibitory set which can suppress the existing negative program you are trying to replace sufficiently so as to keep it from interfering with the re-programming you are attempting.

This is why hypnosis is such a powerful tool for facilitating change since I define hypnosis (as did B.F. Skinner) as a heightened state of belief. This is strongly supported by the evidence showing that hypnotherapy is the most effective form of psychotherapy. I refer the reader to the review of the literature I presented in my article “Hypnotherapy: A Reappraisal” (Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 1970). It was found that the average success rate for hypnotherapy was 93% after an average of 6 sessions; this compared to 72% after an average of 22 sessions for behavior therapy, and 38% after an average of 600 sessions for psychoanalysis.

This is also one of the reasons why religion is so deeply entrenched in the hearts of many since religion offers another way to a heightened state of belief. It also explains why the placebo effect in medicine (both standard and alternative) and psychotherapy plays such a big role in facilitating positive changes in humans since the placebo is based on the power of belief.

Those among you who are adherents of determinism need not feel that this approach to free will contradicts your beliefs – if you define determinism in terms of the lawfulness of nature instead of the opposite of free will as some mistakenly do. What is the opposite of free will is fatalism. If you believe that your life i pre-ordained or pre-destined and that you cannot change it from that, then you are a fatalist and do not believe in free will.

We should also clearly differentiate between the terms “heightened belief” and “beliefs”. When I refer to the power of heightened belief, I am referring to the power of concentrated (unhindered) thought. When I refer to the term “beliefs”, I mean specific attitudes, ideas, ways of seeing things a person might have.

I also feel it is important to differentiate between the concepts of faith and belief. Faith I define as a form of guided or directed belief. And I like to point out that belief alone is often not enough for positive change. If it is directed in a negative direction, it can be harmful and dangerous.

Finally, with regards to how thoughts can directly affect human reactions I refer you to Pavlov’s writings on the power of speech (as well as inner speech which is how Pavlovians refer to thoughts) to affect humans:

Obviously for man speech provides conditioned stimuli which are just as real as any other stimuli… Speech, on account of the whole preceding life of the adult, is connected up with all the internal and external stimuli which can reach the cortex, signaling all of them and replacing all of them, and therefore it can call forth all those reactions of the organism which are normally determined by the actual stimuli themselves.

All articles and quotes referred to above can be found in the “Dr. Barrios Articles” section of my website: www.SPCcenter.com, including my theory of hypnosis. See especially my articles: “Science in Support of Religion: From the Perspective of a Behavioral Scientist” and “Hypnotherapy: A Reappraisal“.

Copyright © Alfred Barrios. Reproduced by kind permission of the author.

[The original version of the article is available from Dr. Barrios’ Self-Programmed Control Center (SPCC) website and from The Great Debate website.]

Copyright © Donald Robertson, 2010.  All rights reserved.

This is an excerpt from the book The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT).  Find out more about the book at www.philosophy-of-cbt.com

The “reserve clause” (exceptio) is perhaps one of the most basic underlying concepts of Stoicism. In a sense, it merely formulates from a different perspective what I have termed the “Stoic Fork”, the distinction between that which is under one’s control and that which is not. It is a verbal clause added to the end of each sentence concerning one’s own actions or intentions. Or rather, it is the concept which would be implied by adding such a clause, the idea that it expresses, because I would assume that the Stoic went from learning to merely say the reserve clause to actually experiencing it. The clause itself can take several forms, e.g., “God willing”, “fate willing”, “nature permitting”, “if nothing prevents me”, etc. In each case, however, the underlying idea is basically the same. A common proverb expresses it thus: “Do what you must; let happen what may.”

Seneca writes that the Stoic Sage undertakes every action with the reserve clause: “If nothing shall occur to the contrary”’ (Seneca, 2009, p. 116).

The wise man considers both sides: he knows how great is the power of errors, how uncertain human affairs are, how many obstacles there are to the success of plans. Without committing himself, he awaits the doubtful and capricious issue of events, and weighs certainty of purpose against uncertainty of result. Here also, however, he is protected by that reserve clause, without which he decides upon nothing, and begins nothing. (Seneca, 2009, p. 116, modified)

He defines the reserve clause by the following formula,

I want to do such and such, as long as nothing happens which may present an obstacle to my decision. (Seneca, in Hadot, 1998, p. 193, modified)

He gives the example, “I will sail across the ocean, if nothing prevents me,” and elaborates,

Nothing happens to the Sage contrary to his expectations, for he foresees that something may intervene which prevents that which he has planned from being carried out. […]

What he thinks above all is that something can always oppose his plans. But the pain caused by failure must be lighter for one who has not promised success to himself beforehand. (Seneca, in Hadot, 1998, p. 205)

The Stoic therefore makes a point of qualifying the expression of every intention, by introducing a distinction between his will and external factors beyond his control. The Sage thereby holds two complementary propositions in mind simultaneously, viz.,

1. I will do my very best to succeed.

2. While simultaneously accepting that the ultimate outcome is beyond my direct control.

It implies, “I will try to succeed, but am prepared to accept both success and failure with equanimity”, and thereby recognises human fallibility. Centuries later, Christian theologians would signify the same notion by appending the letters “D.V.” or Deo Volente (“God Willing”) to their correspondence.

The concept of goal-directed behaviour was traditionally illustrated in classical philosophy by the metaphor of an archer. (Apollo, the patron god of philosophy, was also the god of archery.) The archer can notch his arrow and draw his bow to the best of his ability, but once the arrow has flown he can only wait to see if it hits the target: an unexpected gust of wind could blow it off course. The intention is under his control, as is the act of setting the arrow in motion, but the result is outside his sphere of direct influence and, at least in part, down to “fate” – by which is meant merely external variables. In the third book of De Finibus, Cicero uses the analogy of the archer shooting an arrow at a target. His ultimate wish is to hit the target, but he can only do everything within his power to shoot his arrow straight, and so shooting straight, as opposed to actually hitting the target, must be his primary concern, and so it is with life in general. Nowadays, we say, “All that anyone can ask is that you try your best.” Marcus Aurelius writes, ‘Thanks to action “with a reserve clause” […] there can be no obstacle to my intention’ (Meditations, 5.20).

Remember that your intention was always to act “with a reserve clause”, for you did not desire the impossible. What, then, did you desire? Nothing other than to have such an intention; and that you have achieved. (Meditations, 6.50)

Again, Epictetus puts it as follows,

For can you find me a single man who cares how he does what he does, and is interested, not in what he can get, but in the manner of his own actions? Who, when he is walking around, is interested in his own actions? Who, when he is deliberating, is interested in the deliberation itself, and not in getting what he is planning to get? (Discourses, 2.16.15)

This is a little like saying “It’s not what you do; it’s the way that you do it.” The Stoic Handbook of Epictetus likewise recommends that in addition to reminding oneself to avoid attaching emotive language to external things, we should undertake any action with this reservation: that we may always be thwarted by others, or by fortune. We should remind ourselves to view the future realistically, and to prepare to accept any obstacles calmly rather than feel frustration (Enchiridion, 4). The reserve clause can probably be correlated with the Serenity Prayer insofar as it makes a basic distinction between courageously doing what is under our control while Stoically and serenely accepting what is outside of our control, the outcome or consequences of our actions.

The Reserve Clause & REBT

We have seen that the Stoics acknowledge both irrational and rational forms of desire which could be translated in terms of the distinction between “craving” and “preference”. The reserve clause, which appears to typify the concept of rational preference (boulêsis) in Stoicism, bears a very obvious resemblance to the concept of “rational preference” in REBT. Ellis considered irrational demands, the major underlying source of most emotional disturbance, to be fundamentally exemplified by “must” and “should” statements

So REBT encourages your clients to feel strongly about succeeding at important tasks and relationships, but not to fall into the human propensity to raise their strong desires to absolutistic demands – “I must succeed or else I am worthless!” These produce dysfunctional negative feelings, especially panic and depression, that block their desires.(Ellis & MacLaren, 2005, p. 21)

The healthy alternative prescribed by Ellis is to adopt a philosophy of flexible preference which expresses a desire but also accepts the possibility of it being frustrated, e.g.,

“I must succeed, failure would be awful!”, becomes,

“I strongly prefer to succeed, but even if I fail I will accept myself fully.”

This is, of course, essentially the same “philosophical” attitude toward success or failure that the reserve clause embodied for the Stoics. Again, to put it another way, “I intend to act with wisdom and integrity, fate willing, but will accept the result of my actions with a philosophical attitude.”

We might call this philosophical stance the “take it or leave it” attitude of the Stoic Sage, who is willing to meet success or failure with equal composure. These are the Stoic qualities Marcus Aurelius appears to have deliberately sought to model from his adoptive father, the Emperor Antoninus Pius.

The way he handled the material comforts that fortune had supplied him in such abundance – without arrogance and without apology. If they were there, he took advantage of them. If not, he didn’t miss them.

This “take it or leave it” aspect of Stoicism was, of course, one of the themes in Kipling’s famous poem, If,

If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster

And treat those two impostors just the same; […]

Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it,

And – which is more – you’ll be a Man, my son!(Kipling, 1994, p. 605)

This is sound wisdom and illustrates, once again, the extent to which Stoicism embodies a “perennial philosophy” which permeates the history of European civilisation, from philosophy and theology to poetry and the arts.

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Excerpt from The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy

Copyright © Donald Robertson, 2010.  All rights reserved.

[The following excerpt comes from The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoic Philosophy as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy by Donald Robertson, available from Amazon UK.]

Seneca provides a wonderful account of the “here and now” orientation based upon the saying of the Stoic philosopher Hecato that, ‘Cease to hope and you will cease to fear’(Seneca, 2004, p. 38).  Seneca interprets this with reference to the basic Stoic discipline of desire and aversion, which sees emotional disturbance as the result of over-attachment, or rather over-concern with external things. According to Seneca, hope and fear ‘march in unison like a prisoner and the escort he is handcuffed to’ and both embroil us in anticipated, and therefore imagined, events.

Fear keeps pace with hope. Nor does their so moving together surprise me; both belong to a mind in suspense, to a mind in a state of anxiety through looking into the future. Both are mainly due to projecting our thoughts far ahead of us instead of adapting ourselves to the present. Thus it is that foresight, the greatest blessing humanity has been given, is transformed into a curse. Wild animals run from the dangers they actually see, and once they have escaped them worry no more. We however are tormented alike by what is past and what is to come. A number of our blessings do us harm, for memory brings back the agony of fear while foresight brings it on prematurely. No one confines his unhappiness to the present. (Seneca, 2004, p. 38)

In this remarkable passage, Seneca makes observations which would not be out of place in modern psychotherapy, but in his uniquely powerful literary style. Indeed, Beck and his colleagues say something very similar with regard to the cognitive therapy of anxiety,

Anxiety is a result of projecting oneself into a dangerous situation in the future. As long as the person is in the present, there is no danger. (Beck, Emery, & Greenberg, 2005, p. 243)

The gift which allows us to contemplate the future and the past, and distinguishes us from other animals, becomes a curse when it allows us to dwell upon troubles that are not present, and may not even be real. When such projection of our thoughts across time runs amok, planning and problem-solving for the future easily become anxious worrying, whereas reflecting on what we can learn from the past may become depressive rumination. The only true reality is the present moment, where our ability to take action is centred. Elsewhere, Seneca quotes the Epicurean maxim, ‘The life of folly is empty of gratitude, full of anxiety: it is focused wholly on the future’ (Seneca, 2004, p. 62).

Another aspect of this “here and now” orientation is brought out beautifully by the Epicureans. When we find ourselves, for the first time, in the presence of something completely and utterly new, we are filled with wonder. We might imagine the world looking this way to a small child, or to a blind man who suddenly regains his sight. Over time, we become jaded and habituated to the world, though, and mundane things cease to excite us. However, by immersing ourselves more fully in the present moment, and thereby ceasing to compare it to the past, in a sense, we recapture something of its novelty. The great Latin poet Lucretius writes, ‘there is nothing so mighty or so marvellous that the wonder it evokes does not tend to diminish in time’,

Take first the pure and undimmed lustre of the sky and all that it enshrines: the stars that roam across its surface, the moon and the surpassing splendour of the sunlight. If all these sights were now displayed to mortal view for the first time by a swift unforeseen revelation, what miracle could be recounted greater than this? What would men before the revelation have been less prone to conceive as possible? (Lucretius, 1951, p. 90)

This contemplative technique also appears in Stoicism, e.g., when Seneca writes,

As for me, I usually spend a great deal of time in the contemplation of wisdom. I look at it with the same stupefaction, with which, on other occasions, I look at the world; this world that I quite often feel as though I were seeing for the first time. (Seneca, in Hadot, 1995, p. 257)

Philosophy, according to Socrates, begins with the sense of wonder, and wonder is therefore the hallmark of the philosopher (Plato, Theaetetus, 155d3). The sense of wonder, in this way, is intimately related to consciousness of the here and now.

However, the philosophical Sage is not merely wide-eyed, but also circumspect and self-possessed. The Chinese Daoist sage, Lao Tzu, said that the wise man was as cautious as someone crossing a winter stream. Epictetus says something virtually identical, when he writes that the Sage walks about cautiously, like a man wary of treading on a nail or twisting his ankle on rocky ground (Enchiridion, 38). Rather than literally being careful of every footstep, of course, Epictetus means that one should mind one’s own thinking. Elsewhere, he says that one who is making good progress in Stoicism keeps watch continually over himself, his thoughts and judgements, as he would his own deadliest enemy, ‘and one lying in wait for him’ (Enchiridion, 48). Hence, ‘you should turn all your attention to the care of your mind’ (Enchiridion, 41).

[This excerpt comes from The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoic Philosophy as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy by Donald Robertson, available from Amazon UK.]

Stoic Philosophy as Rational & Cognitive Psychotherapy

Donald Robertson

Many of us have felt the need for a book that covers the underlying philosophy of the cognitive-behavioural therapies in much greater depth. This book provides us with the missing link between the theory and the philosophy. It is a fascinating read and could be considered as either a prequel or a sequel to the standard textbook read by a trainee or experienced cognitive-behavioural or rational emotive practitioner who wants to understand these approaches to therapy within an historical framework.  (Prof. Stephen Palmer, from the Foreword)

The Philosophy of CBT was published in August 2010 and is the first major text to explore in detail the relationship between modern psychotherapy and ancient Stoic philosophy, particularly in relation to CBT and REBT.  Copies are available online from Karnac, the publisher,

Purchase The Philosophy of CBT Online from Karnac

We have created a dedicated website and blog, which contains a video interview with Donald Robertson, the author, discussing philosophy and psychotherapy, reviews of the book, and many free articles and excerpts,

www.philosophy-of-cbt.com

Excerpts from the book are available on the page below,

http://philosophy-of-cbt.com/category/excerpts/

Some example reviews,

http://philosophy-of-cbt.com/reviews-of-the-philosophy-of-cbt/

Tom Butler-Bowdon, Author of 50 Self-Help Classics and 50 Psychology Classics,

Donald Robertson is blazing a trail to discover the sources of cognitive-behavioural therapy, and Stoic philosophy is prime among these. A fascinating work that should be compulsory reading for all practitioners in the field and interested lay people, providing insights into how ancient philosophy can give us the coping and life success strategies we are all looking for, both as professionals and in private life.  A great read!

A Cognitive-Behavioural Approach (Routledge, 2009)

Michael Neenan

ISBN 041548068X

Reviewed by Donald Robertson

Resilience potentially exists within all of us. Focus upon resilience factors often means focusing upon our strengths instead of weaknesses in a way that helps us to anticipate problems and cope better with them when they happen. It’s a concept currently growing in popularity as it holds promise for the prevention of psychological problems, such as depression, at a collective level. Michael Neenan’s new book Developing Resilience: A Cognitive-Behavioural Approach provides a detailed overview and guide to the subject of resilience from an evidence-based perspective.

Neenan and Prof. Windy Dryden have provided a very thorough definition of “resilience”, which begins,

Resilience comprises a set of flexible cognitive, behavioural and emotional responses to acute or chronic adversities which can be unusual or commonplace. These responses can be learned and are within the grasp of everyone; resilience is not a rare quality given to a chosen few. While many factors affect the development of resilience, the most important one is the attitude you adopt to deal with adversity. Therefore attitude (meaning) is the heart of resilience.

This is a very enjoyable and easy book to read. It’s erudite, academically-informed, and draws upon a wealth of research-based knowledge and clinical experience but is written and laid out in a very accessible “self-help” style. It manages to be one of those books that will appeal both to therapists and their clients and I will no doubt be recommending it to psychotherapy clients, for whom “Developing Resilience” is often a very attractive concept. It’s also well-suited for coaching work, where, rather than psychopathology, the focus is mainly on strengths and coping with “everyday hassles.”

My own special area is classical philosophy and psychotherapy. According to Neenan “Attitude is the heart of resilience”, which accords with classical Greek and Roman Stoicism in its emphasis upon adopting a “philosophical” attitude toward adversity. Epictetus famously told his students, “People are not upset by events but rather their judgements about things”, which Neenan calls “the foundation of a resilient outlook.” It’s the basis of the modern “cognitive model” of emotional disturbance. Neenan tackles the common misconception that Stoicism means “suppression of emotion” at the start of the book and emphasises that the ancient Stoics merely recommended that unhealthy irrational emotions should be replaced by more healthy and adaptive ones.

Neenan also says, “Distinguish between what is within and outside your control”, echoing the famous Serenity Prayer. The central principle of Stoicism, with which the famous Handbook (Enchiridion) of Epictetus opens, was precisely the distinction between that which is within our control and that which is not. In the final analysis, Neenan and Epictetus point out, our judgements and intentions (attitudes and behaviour) are within our control more than external events and other people’s responses, etc., over which “fortune”, i.e., other factors, may intervene.

Neenan provides many real-life examples of resilience, most notably the story of Vice-Admiral James Stockdale, who said to himself “I’m now leaving my world and entering the world of Epictetus!” as he ejected from his crippled fighter plane over enemy territory at the outbreak of the Vietnam War. Stockdale was incarcerated and tortured for seven years by the North Vietnamese, during which time he relied heavily upon the Stoic teachings of Epictetus to cope with the exceptional adversity of his circumstances. He provides the ideal “case study” for cognitive therapists interested in resilience and coping with extreme adversity.

Neenan is mainly inspired by CBT, as the title suggests, and draws upon the Stoicism of Epictetus and the examples of famous individuals like James Stockdale, Victor Frankl, Hellen Keller and Nelson Mandella, etc. He also draws upon Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), the Positive Psychology of Seligman and others, research on Problem-Solving Therapy (PST), and other therapeutic approaches.

The chapters are entitled,

1. What is resilience?
2. Attitude: the heart of resilience
3. Attitudes that undermine resilience building
4. Making yourself more resilient
5. Strengths underpinning resilience
6. Resilience in the workplace
7. Resilience in relationships
8. Resilience in dealing with difficult people
9. Maintaining resilience
10. An overview of resilience

We could all do with increasing our resilience. Especially with so many people around the world facing tough times financially and in terms of their employment. This happens to be a concept that has recently “come of age” and this book is probably the best place to begin learning what modern psychology and cognitive therapy have to teach us about coping with adversity or just the everyday problems of living that we all face on an ongoing basis. Highly recommended.

Copyright © Donald Robertson, 2003.  All rights reserved.

There are many examples of phenomena reminiscent of self-hypnosis in classical literature. It is well-known, for instance, that the philosopher Socrates had a tendency to enter spontaneous cataleptic trances, in which he was gripped by contemplation of his inner psyche (nous). The best account of this is found in Plato’s Symposium where Socrates freezes in deep meditation en route to a drinking party (the ‘symposium’ of the title). The host Agathon, and the other guests, are left waiting; a slave is sent and returns reporting:

“Socrates is here, but he’s gone off to the neighbour’s porch. He’s standing there and won’t come in even though I called him several times.”

Agathon gives the order, “Go back and bring him in!” but Socrates’ companion, Aristodemus, objects:

“No, no, leave him alone. It’s one of his habits: every now and then he just goes off like that and stands frozen, wherever he happens to be.”

Socrates eventually arrives when the meal is halfway finished, at which Agathon chides him:

“Socrates, come lie down next to me. Who knows, if I touch you, I may catch a bit of the enlightenment (sophia) that came to you under my neighbour’s porch. It’s clear you’ve seen the light. If you hadn’t you’d still be standing there!”

Toward the end of the symposium, the drunken Alcibiades arrives, a notorious playboy who idolises and is in love with Socrates. He begins a speech singing the praises of his beloved mentor, describing how the middle-aged Socrates exhibited surprising sexual restraint by continually spurning his advances, even when he went so far as slipping naked into bed with him. Alcibiades was at this time a youth, famous for his beauty. Socrates, by contrast, was notoriously ugly, balding, and pot-bellied –the Greeks described him as looking like a torpedo fish!

Alcibiades continues by describing various events which he observed during their military service together, when Athens invaded Potidaea. During this campaign Socrates was awarded the ‘prize of pre-eminent valour’, which he declined in preference that it should belong to Alcibiades.

Despite his age, Socrates appeared to be hardier and tougher than any other soldier. He walked barefoot on ice, and in bitter cold wore only the customary grey, light cotton cloak of the ancient philosophers. When supplies were lost he seemed impervious to hunger. He wasn’t partial to drink, but he could drink any man under the table, seemingly unaffected by alcohol. We are also told that several times when Athens was rife with plague, Socrates was the only citizen unaffected by illness.

Socrates was, in earlier years, a man of physical prowess, and fearless during the thick of combat; the ancient historian of philosophy, Diogenes Laertius, reports his rescue of the soldier and author Xenophon, who later became his disciple and founded one of ten distinct ‘Socratic’ sects in Athens,

He paid great attention also to the training of the body, and was always in excellent condition himself. Accordingly, he joined in the expedition to Amphipolis, and he it was who took up and saved Xenophon in the battle of Delian, when he had fallen from his horse; for when all the Athenians had fled, he retreated quietly, turning round slowly, and watching to repel any one who attacked him.

Alcibiades seems to be referring to this incident when he remarks,

“…in the midst of battle he was making his way exactly as he does around town, ‘with swaggering gait and roving eye.’ He was observing everything quite calmly, looking out for friendly troops and keeping an eye on the enemy. Even from a great distance it was obvious that this was a very brave man, who would put up a terrific fight if anyone approached him.”

These are examples of the exceptional physical and emotional self-mastery (enkrateia) attributed to many classical philosophers. (What a contrast with modern academics!) Alcibiades deliberately links this discussion of Socrates’ self-control to a further example of his deep meditative trances:

“So much for that! But you should hear what else he did during that same campaign, ‘The exploit our strong-hearted hero dared to do.’ One day, at dawn, he started thinking about some problem or other; he just stood outside, trying to figure it out. He couldn’t resolve it, but he wouldn’t give up. He simply stood there, glued to the same spot. By midday, many soldiers had seen him, and, quite mystified, they told everyone that Socrates had been standing there all day, thinking about something. He was still there when evening came, and after dinner some Ionians moved their bedding outside, where it was cooler and more comfortable (all this took place in the summer), but mainly in order to watch if Socrates was going to stay out there all night. And so he did; he stood in the very same spot until dawn! He only left next morning, when the Sun came out, and he made his prayers to the new day.”

Hence, just as on his way to Agathon’s symposium, Socrates is described as entering a mystical, cataleptic trance. The difference is that the trance described by Alcibiades appears to have lasted an entire 24 hours, during which extraordinary length of time Socrates remained physically immobile and impervious to his surroundings and the heat of the Mediterranean summer Sun.

It’s reasonable to say, therefore, that Socrates provides one of the earliest and most influential examples of meditative trance recorded in European literature. There are, however, no indications in the writings of Plato or Xenophon (our two main sources for information on him) that these trances were considered similar to sleep, the main factor which would justify us in drawing the analogy with self-hypnosis. Nevertheless, subsequent references to the tradition in which Socrates stood do make this explicit connection. An important reference to ‘sleep-trances’ relates to the Bacchae, the followers of Dionysus, the very god to whom Plato’s Symposium is dedicated. Socrates himself is often considered to have been an initiate of the Orphic mystery religion, a mystical movement which evolved out of the rites of the Bacchae. The great James Braid, in the first book ever written on hypnotism (as opposed to Animal Magnetism), cites a quotation from the Roman poet Horace (c. 65 BC), ‘Exsomnis stupet Euhias‘ (Odes 3:25), which according to Braid’s translation, describes the entranced Bacchae as being possessed by a ‘stupor different from common sleep.’ This remark indicates that the followers of Dionysus were known to experience trance states similar to sleep but distinct from normal, nocturnal sleep.

In a critical text (c. 300 A.D.) on the subject of ‘theurgy’ the ancient study of spiritual rituals and ceremonies, the Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry discusses many examples of trance states in the Mystery religions and Platonic philosophical practices. In one revealing passage, he refers to the use of imagination (i.e., suggestion) in conjunction with a variety of practical props and techniques (including eye-fixation) as a means to entering trance states:

Others who understand themselves in other respects become divinely inspired through the imagination: some taking darkness as accessory, others employing certain potions, and others depending on singing and magic figures. Some are affected by means of water, others by gazing on a wall, others by the hypæthral air, and others by the sun or some other of the heavenly luminaries. (Iamblichus, Theurgy: On the Mysteries of Egypt, 3: 8)

A more detailed account of the experience of hypnotic-sleep, presumably brought about by these or similar methods, occurs in the Poimandres of Hermes Trismegistus (c. 150 A.D.), a Graeco-Egyptian mystical text which uses the language of Platonic philosophy derived from Socrates. The legendary Egyptian philosopher Hermes begins by reporting the experience of a sleep-like trance during which he contemplates archetypes, or philosophical ‘essences’:

“Once, when my mind had become intent on the things-which-are [a Socratic term for archetypes], and my innermost mind [nous] was raised to a great height, while my bodily senses were withdrawn as in sleep [hypnos] (when men are weighed down by too much food or by the fatigue of the body) it seemed that someone immensely great of infinite dimensions happened to call my name […]‘

This ‘someone’ is revealed to be God, in the form of ‘Cosmic Nous.’ In Greek mysticism, the innermost level of the individual self (nous) is generally assumed to be one with the ‘Cosmic Self’, i.e., the mind of God himself (Nous, capitalised). (This is effectively the ‘archetypal Self’ of Jungian psychology.) Hermes proceeds to give a lengthy and detailed account of his conversation with God/Nous. In conclusion he describes the nature of sleep-trance in a passage absolutely loaded with technical terminology from ancient Dionysian mysticism and Socratic/Platonic philosophy:

‘For the sleep [hypnos] of the body, became the awakening of the mind [psyche], the closing of the eyes became true vision, my silence became pregnant with the Supreme Good, and the utterance of the Word [Logos] became the generation of riches.’

This curious statement, that “The sleep of the body became the awakening of the mind,” provides us with a perfect and concise description of classical hypnotic-meditation. The rest of this final sentence emphasises that through passively withdrawing the sense of vision and the activity of speech Hermes’ mind was illuminated with vision and speech from an unconscious source. In this case, by contemplating the archetypal essence of his own individual self, Hermes’ reports that he experienced contact with an image of the ‘Higher Self’ (Nous). This report is clearly inspired by Socrates’ remarks elsewhere on the aims of meditation and philosophy: to experience a vision of the archetypes.

Nowadays, many people deny any neuro-psychological similarity between hypnosis and sleep. However, one of the most striking features of classical hypnosis has always been the fact that it superficially, or externally, resembles sleep. It is for this reason that the Marquis de Puysegur described hypnosis as ‘artificial somnambulism’, Deleuze described it as ‘lucid sleep’, and Braid as ‘nervous sleep’ (i.e., sleep of the nervous system). These are all crude attempts to define hypnosis as a trance “different from normal sleep,” i.e., as a merely physical, mentally lucid, and artificial form of sleep. These descriptions are all highly consistent with the Neoplatonic experience of a ‘sleep of the body’ which is nevertheless an ‘awakening of the mind.’ Whether this is the same hypnotic-meditation (‘a stupor different from common sleep’) attributed to the Bacchae, we will probably never know for certain. Hermes, on the other hand, does describe it in terms which sound very similar to the cataleptic trances of Socrates, and it is clearly intended to stand in the same philosophical tradition.

Braid himself was apparently unaware of these links to Socrates and Neoplatonism, however, he rightly guessed that the Greeks had experience of something akin to hypnotism. He believed, in fact, that the ancient Greek sculptors worked upon hypnotised subjects in order to achieve such startling representations of the static human form. If Braid had further investigated the tantalising references to such ‘sleep-trances’ in Greek literature, it could have transformed modern hypnotism. Although we know little of their practical exercises, the ancient philosophers left us extensive theoretical writings on their mystical trancework. I would like to believe that the beautiful and sophisticated metaphysics of trance found in writers of the Greek philosophical tradition may yet provide a comprehensive framework for the development of a genuine ‘philosophy of hypnosis.’

My new book, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy, came out in August, published by Karnac, the leading UK psychotherapy publisher.

This is the first book to explore in detail the relationship between modern psychotherapy, especially REBT and CBT, and traditional Socratic philosophy, particularly Stoicism. According to Karnac’s website, it’s currently their most popular book on CBT. Amazon report it’s most popular among people who buy Prof. Paul Gilbert’s book The Compassionate Mind (2010) and Prof. William B. Irvine’s A Guide to the Good Life: The Ancient Art of Stoic Joy (2009).

Several reviews of The Philosophy of CBT have already appeared online and it currently has a five-star rating on Amazon, where one reviewer writes,

“I’ll be honest… I wasn’t originally going to buy this book because although I am very interested in all things CBT I didn’t think I was at all interested in Philosophy. I decided to buy it anyway because I have a huge respect for the author, and other publications of his which I have read have all been superbly written…

“Donald always impresses with his in-depth knowledge of, and enthusiasm for, his subject areas. This book is no exception… he has taken a really interesting area and communicated the material with clarity and insight. I would certainly recommend this book to anybody interested in, or involved with CBT as a book thoroughly worth reading and keeping on the bookshelf!”

We’re pleased with how well it’s doing so far and have created this website/blog about it where you can watch a video interview and read excerpts from the book and reviews about it, as well as related articles.

www.philosophy-of-cbt.com

There are a selection of excerpts listed on the page below,

http://philosophy-of-cbt.com/category/excerpts/

I hope you’ll enjoy the articles and consider delving into the book to find out more about how Socratic philosophy informs the theory and practice of modern psychotherapy.

Yours Sincerely,

Donald Robertson

Author of
The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (2010)
The Discovery of Hypnosis: The Complete Writings of James Braid (2009)
The Practice of Cognitive-Behavioural Hypnotherapy (due out soon)

Émile Coué, Autosuggestion, and Ancient Philosophy

Copyright (c) Donald Robertson, 2010. All rights reserved. 

Strikingly, Coué wrote, ‘Pythagoras and Aristotle taught autosuggestion’(Coué, 1923, p. 3).  Though his justification for this conclusion seems somewhat unclear, he could probably have found more material to explain and support it. 

We know, indeed, that the whole human organism is governed by the nervous system, the centre of which is the brain – the seat of thought.  In other words, the brain, or mind, controls every cell, every organ, every function of the body.  That being so, is it not clear that by means of thought we are the absolute masters of our physical organism and that, as the Ancients showed centuries ago, thought – or suggestion – can and does produce disease or cure it?  Pythagoras taught the principle of auto-suggestion to his disciples.  He wrote: “God the Father, deliver them from their sufferings, and show them what supernatural power is at their call.” (Coué, 1923, pp. 3-4)  

The practice of repeating aphorisms, short verbal “formulas”, seems to have been associated with the ancient mystery religions and oracles, and the philosophical-therapeutic sect of Pythagoras which evolved from them.  

The Ancients well knew the power – often the terrible power – contained in the repetition of a phrase of formula.  The secret of the undeniable influence they exercised through the old Oracles resided probably, nay, certainly, in the force of suggestion. (Coué, 1923, p. 27)  

The most famous formulae associated with the Delphic Oracle of Apollo, the patron god of philosophy, were “Know thyself” and “Nothing in excess.”  The Pythagoreans compiled lists of such aphorisms, which acquired cryptic symbolic meanings, and were referred to as akousmata, the “things listened to”, and symbola, the “symbols” or “watchwords.”  For example, according to Porphry, the precept “poke not the fire with a sword” was a reminder that one should not further provoke an angry person by attacking them with verbal criticisms; “eat not the heart”, meant that one should not wallow in morbid emotions (Porphyry, 1988, p. 131).  These Pythagorean sayings, and those derived from the Greek Oracles, may well be the precursors of the Stoic precepts (dogmata) which, as we shall see, appear to have performed a similar function. 

Stoic Philosophy as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy

Donald Robertson

Publisher: Karnac Books (Aug 2010)
ISBN-10: 1855757567 / ISBN-13: 978-1855757561

The Philosophy of CBT

The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoic Philosophy as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy, published by Karnac and available for pre-order online now.

You can also now order The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy from Amazon, where you may preview a sample of the contents online free of charge. See Donald’s author page on Amazon UK for additional publications.

You can now browse sample chapters from The Philosophy of CBT on Google Books free-of-charge.

Synopsis:

Why should modern psychotherapists be interested in philosophy, especially ancient philosophy? Why should philosophers be interested in psychotherapy? There is a sense of mutual attraction between what are today two thoroughly distinct disciplines. However, arguably it was not always the case that they were distinct.

Donald Robertson takes the view that by reconsidering the generally received wisdom concerning the history of these closely-related subjects, we can learn a great deal about both philosophy and psychotherapy, under which heading he includes potentially solitary pursuits such as “self-help” and “personal development”.

Testimonials:

Here are a selection of comments about The Philosophy of CBT from other therapy and philosophy authors:

[F]or many of us something is missing from most of the [CBT] literature. What has been needed is a book that covers the underlying philosophy of the cognitive behavioural therapies in much greater depth. This book on the Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy by Donald Robertson provides us with the missing link between the theory and the philosophy. [...] It is a fascinating read. The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy could be considered as either a prequel or a sequel to the standard textbook read by a trainee or experienced cognitive behavioural or rational emotive practitioner who wants to understand these approaches to therapy within an historical framework.
— From the Foreword by Professor Stephen Palmer PhD FAREBT FBACP, Director of the Centre for Stress Management, London, UK

This book is a fascinating interweaving of Stoic philosophy and contemporary cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT). Robertson rightly reminds us of how much CBT owes its philosophical origins to the Stoics but, sadly, how often this debt is insufficiently acknowledged. He urges us to redirect our attention to the past to see how modern CBT still has much to learn from its ancient precursors. Highly recommended.
— Michael Neenan, Co-Director of the CBT Programme, Centre for Stress Management, Bromley, Kent, UK

The author has uncovered a wealth of connections between modern cognitive-behavioural therapies and ancient Stoic philosophy. It should be read by anyone interested in understanding the historical roots of CBT or in learning about how ancient psychotherapeutic methods can add to the modern therapist’s toolkit.
— Tim LeBon, UKCP registered psychotherapist and author of Wise Therapy

Donald Robertson is blazing a trail to discover the sources of cognitive-behavioural therapy, and Stoic philosophy is prime among these. A fascinating work that should be compulsory reading for all practitioners in the field and interested lay people, providing insights into how ancient philosophy can give us the coping and life success strategies we are all looking for, both as professionals and in private life. A great read!
— Tom Butler-Bowdon, author of 50 Self-Help Classics and 50 Psychology Classics

Socrates in Aristophanes' The Clouds

Copyright (c) Donald Robertson, 2010.  All rights reserved.

(This is a brief excerpt from my book, The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoic Philosophy as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy, published by Karnac and available for order online now.)

Plato has a fine saying, that he who would discourse of man should survey, as from some high watchtower, the things of earth.  (Marcus Aurelius, The Meditations) 

Take a moment to settle into your posture and make yourself comfortable…  Close your eyes and relax… [Pause.]  Be aware of your breathing…  Notice the rhythm and pattern of the breath…  Do nothing for while, just be content to contemplate your breathing more deeply… [Pause.]  Now, begin by paying attention to the whole of your body as one…  From the top of your head, all the way down into your fingers and down into your toes…  Be aware of your body as one… every nerve, muscle and fibre… Don’t try to change anything.  Don’t try to stop anything from changing…  Some things can change just by being observed… 

Just be content to notice whatever you notice, and feel whatever you feel…  Be a passive, detached observer…  As you continue to relax, turn your attention deeper within, and become more aware of your body… until you can almost imagine how you look right now…  Begin to picture yourself as if seen from the outside… Now just imagine that you are taking a step back and looking at yourself.  It really doesn’t matter how vividly you can picture yourself, it’s just the intention, just idea that matters.  Imagine your body posture… your facial expression… the colour and style of your clothing…

Now keep looking at the image of yourself resting there, and imagine your own feet are gently leaving the ground.  You begin floating serenely upwards, slowly and continuously, rising upwards.  All the while your gaze keeps returning to your own body, now seated there below you as you rise above it.  Keep looking down toward your body as you float higher and higher….  The roof and ceiling disappear, allowing you to float freely upward.  Gazing down you see yourself seated comfortably below in the building, looking contented and contemplative.  You see all the rooms, and any other people around.

As you continue to float gently higher and higher, your perspective widens more and more until you see the whole surrounding area.  You see all the buildings nearby from above.  You see the people in buildings and in the streets and roads.  You observe people far below working, or walking along the pavement, people cycling or driving their cars, and those travelling on buses and trains.  You begin to contemplate the whole network of human lives and how people everywhere are interacting with each other, influencing each other, encountering each other in different ways…

Floating higher, people become as small as ants below.  Rising up into the clouds, you see the whole of the surrounding region beneath you.  You see both towns and countryside, and gradually the coastline comes into view as your perspective becomes more and more expansive…  You float gently up above the clouds, above the weather, and through the upper atmosphere of the planet Earth…  So high that you eventually rise beyond the sphere of the planet itself, and into outer space…  You look toward planet Earth and see it suspended in space before you, silently turning… resplendent in all its majesty and beauty…

You see the whole of your home planet… the blue of the great oceans… and the brown and green of the continental land masses…  You see the white of the polar ice caps, north and south…  You see the grey wisps of cloud that pass silently across the surface of the Earth…  Though you can no longer see yourself from so far above, you know and feel that you are down there on Earth below, and that your life is important, and what you make of your life is important.  Your change in perspective changes your view of things, your values and priorities…

You contemplate all the countless living beings upon the Earth.  The population of the planet is over six billion people…  You realise that your life is one among many, one person among the total population of the Earth…  You think of the rich diversity of human life on Earth.  The many languages spoken by people of different races, in different countries… people of all different ages… newborn infants, elderly people, people in the prime of life…  You think of the enormous variety of human experiences… some people right now are unhappy, some people are happy… and you realise how richly varied the tapestry of human life before you seems.

And yet as you gaze upon the planet Earth you are also aware of its position within the rest of the universe… a tiny speck of stardust, adrift in the immeasurable vastness of cosmic space…  This world of ours is merely a single planet, a tiny grain of sand by comparison with the endless tracts of cosmic space…    a tiny rock in space, revolving around our Sun… the Sun itself just one of countless billions of stars which punctuate the velvet blackness of our galaxy…

You think about the present moment on Earth and see it within the broader context of your life as a whole.  You think of your lifespan as a whole, in its totality…  You think of your own life as one moment in the enormous lifespan of mankind…  Hundreds of generations have lived and died before you… many more will live and die in the future, long after you yourself are gone…  Civilisations too have a lifespan; you think of the many great cities which have arisen and been destroyed throughout the ages… and your own civilisation as one in a series… perhaps in the future to be followed by new cities, peoples, languages, cultures, and ways of life…

You think of the lifespan of humanity itself…  Just one of countless billions of species living upon the planet…  Mankind arose as a race roughly two hundred thousand years ago… animal life itself first appeared on Earth over four billion years ago…  Contemplate time as follows…  Realise that if the history of life on Earth filled an encyclopaedia a thousand pages long… the life of the entire human race could be represented by a single sentence somewhere in that book… just one sentence…

And yet you think of the lifespan of the planet itself…  Countless billions of years old… the life of the planet Earth too has a beginning, middle, and end…  Formed from the debris of an exploding star, unimaginably long ago… one day in the distant future its destiny is to be swallowed up and consumed by the fires of our own Sun…  You think of the great lifespan of the universe itself… the almost incomprehensible vastness of universal time… starting with a cosmic explosion, a big bang they say, immeasurable ages ago in the past…  Perhaps one day, at the end of time, this whole universe will implode upon itself and disappear once again…  Who can imagine what, if anything, might follow, at the end of time, in the wake of our own universe’s demise…

Contemplating the vast lifespan of the universe, remember that the present moment is but the briefest of instants… the mere blink of an eye… the turn of a screw… a fleeting second in the mighty river of cosmic time…  Yet the “here and now” is important… standing as the centre point of all human experience…  Here and now you find yourself at the centre of living time…  Though your body may be small in the grand scheme of things, your imagination, the human imagination, is as big as the universe… bigger than the universe… enveloping everything that can be conceived…  From the cosmic point of view, your body seems small, but your imagination seems utterly vast… 

You contemplate all things, past, present and future…  You see your life within the bigger picture… the total context of cosmic time and space…  The totality is absolute reality…  You see yourself as an integral part of something much bigger, something truly vast, the “All” itself…  Just as the cells of your own body work together to form a greater unity, a living being, so your body as a whole is like a single cell in the organism of the universe…  Along with every atom in the universe you necessarily contribute your role to the unfolding of its grand design…

As your consciousness expands, and your mind stretches out to reach and touch the vastness of eternity…  Things change greatly in perspective… and shifts occur in their relative importance… Trivial things seem trivial to you…  Indifferent things seem indifferent…  The significance of your own attitude toward life becomes more apparent… you realise that life is what you make of it…   You learn to put things in perspective, and focus on your true values and priorities in life…  One stage at a time, you develop the serenity to accept the things you cannot change, the courage to change the things you can, and the wisdom to know the difference…  You follow nature… your own true nature as a rational, truth-seeking human being… and the one great nature of the universe as a whole…

Now in a moment you are beginning to sink back down to Earth, toward your place in the here and now…  Part of you can remain aware of the view from above, and always return to and remember that sense of serenity and perspective. 

Now you begin your descent back down to Earth, to face the future with renewed strength and serenity…  You sink back down through the sky… down… down… down… toward the local area… down… down… down… into this building…  down… down… down… You sink back gently into your body… all the way now… as your feet slowly come to rest upon the floor once again…

Now think about the room around you… Think about action… movement… think about looking around and getting your orientation…  raising your head a little…  Begin to breathe a little bit more deeply… a little bit more energetically… let your body feel more alive and ready for action… breathe energy and vitality into your body… breathe a little deeper and deeper again… until you’re ready to take a deep breath, open your eyes, and emerge from meditation… taking your mindfulness and self-awareness forward into life… beginning now… take a deep breath… and open your eyes now… when you’re ready… entering the here and now with deep calm and serenity…